Teaser

oxygen, acid, eager, vinegar, tear, lachrymose, edge, axe, hammer, hear, acoustic, coin, cuneiform, cone

Full Text

• Proto-Indo-European *h₂eḱ- sharp

  • Proto-Indo-European *h₂oḱós sharp

    • Hellenic

      • Classical Greek ὀξύς oxús sharp, pointed, clever, swift

        • French oxygène oxygen Greek technical formation "sharp-forming", for oxygen's role in forming acids

          • English oxygen
          • Translingual O
        • Classical Greek ὀξύμωρος oxúmōros a witty saying that is seemingly paradoxical, oxymoron "clever-foolish"

          • English oxymoron
        • English oxytocic Greek technical formation "swift-birth"

          • English oxytocin
  • Proto-Indo-European *h₂eḱéh₁ye-ti secondary imperfective

    • Italic *akēō

      • Latin aceō sour

        • Latin acidus sour, tart, acidic, harsh

          • French acide acid, acidic, sour, tart

            • English acid
        • Latin acētum vinegar

          • Central Romance

            • Italian aceto vinegar
          • Insular Romance

            • Sardinian acedhu
          • Western Romance

            • Spanish acedo sour, tart, a sour juice
          • Old English æċed vinegar
          • English acetate
          • Old High German

            • German Essig vinegar
          • Old Irish aigéd vinegar

            • Irish aigéad acid
          • Old Norse edik vinegar

            • Danish eddike vinegar
            • Icelandic edik vinegar
          • Gothic 𐌰𐌺𐌴𐌹𐍄 akeit vinegar

            • Slavic *ocьtъ

              • East Slavic

                • Russian о́цет ócet vinegar
              • South Slavic

                • Old Church Slavonic оцьтъ ocĭtŭ vinegar
                • Serbo-Croatian о̀цат òcat vinegar
              • West Slavic

                • Polish ocet vinegar
  • Proto-Indo-European *h₂ḱrós sharp adjective

    • Balto-Slavic *aśras

      • East Baltic

        • Lithuanian aštrùs sharp
      • Slavic *ostrъ sharp

        • East Slavic

          • Russian о́стрый óstryj sharp, acute, keen, piquant
        • South Slavic

          • Serbo-Croatian о̏штар ȍštar sharp, acute, keen, precise
        • West Slavic

          • Polish ostry sharp, spicy, acute
    • Hellenic

      • Classical Greek ἄκρος ákros edge, extreme, top, best, first

        • Classical Greek ἀκρόπολις akrópolis

          • English acropolis
    • Italic *akris sharp, sour

      • Latin ācer sharp, sour, keen, shrewd

        • Central Romance

          • Italian agro sour, vinegary
        • Western Romance

          • French aigre

            • English eager ^[1]
            • French vinaigre vinegar lit. "wine-sour"

              • English vinegar
          • Spanish agrio sour, tangy, bitter
        • Latin acerbus sour, bitter, rough, oppressive

          • French acerbe acerbic, harsh

            • English acerbic
          • Latin acerbātus make sour, make bitter, make worse

            • Latin exacerbātus provoke, exacerbate, thoroughly worsen

              • English exacerbate
        • English acrid
        • French âcre acrid, bitter
        • Old Irish aicher sharp, fierce

          • Irish aichear sharp, keen
    • Proto-Indo-European *h₂eḱru a sharp, a bitter, tear deadjectival

      • Anatolian

        • Hittite 𒅖𒄩𒀪𒊒 isḫaḫru tears
      • Balto-Slavic

        • East Baltic

          • Lithuanian ãšara tear, pearl
      • Indo-Iranian *Háćru

        • Indo-Aryan *Háśru

          • Sanskrit 𑀅𑀰𑁆𑀭𑀼 áśru tear

            • Maharashtri 𑀅𑀁𑀲𑀼 aṃsu

              • Marathi आसू āsū
            • Pali assu

              • Khmer អស្សុ ʾahsoʾ tear
            • Sauraseni 𑀅𑀲𑁆𑀲𑀼 assu

              • Madhya Sauraseni

                • Hindi आँसू ā̃sū tear
              • Pahari

                • Nepali आशू āśū
                • Punjabi ਅੱਥਰੂ atharū
            • Telugu అశ్రువు aśruvu tear
        • Iranian *Hácru

          • Avestan 𐬀𐬯𐬭𐬏𐬀𐬰𐬀𐬥 asrūazan tears
          • Pashto اوښه óẍa
          • Western Iranian

            • Northwestern Iranian

              • Kurdish hêstir
            • Old Persian

              • Persian ارس ars tear
      • Tocharian *ākru

        • Arshian ākär tear
        • Kushean akrūna tears
      • Proto-Indo-European *dr̥ḱ-h₂eḱru tear(s) lit. "eye-bitter" "eye-sting", with *derḱ-

        • Proto-Indo-European drh₂éḱru haplology

          • Germanic *trahnuz a tear

            • West Germanic

              • Frankish *trān

                • Dutch traan a tear, fish oil

                  • Dutch traanolie fish oil

                    • English train oil
              • Old High German tra(h)an

                • German Träne a tear
          • Proto-Indo-European *dh₂éḱru further haplology

            • Pre-Armenian *artawr a tear

              • Old Armenian արտօսր artōsr a tear with 's' from the plural
              • Pre-Armenian *artaḱu-? tears ^[1]

                • Old Armenian արտասուք artasukʿ tears

                  • Armenian արցունք arcʿunkʿ a tear
                  • Armenian արտասուք artasukʿ a tear, to weep, to lament re-borrowing
            • Hellenic

              • Classical Greek δάκρυ dákru a tear, sap

                • Greek δάκρυ dákry a tear
                • English dacryo-
            • Late Northwest Indo-European *dáḱrom

              • Celtic *dakrom a tear

                • Old Irish dér a tear

                  • Irish deoir a tear
              • Germanic *tahrą a tear plural stem *tagr-

                • East Germanic

                  • Gothic 𐍄𐌰𐌲𐍂 tagr a tear singular stem levelled to plural stem
                • North Germanic

                  • Old Norse tár a tear

                    • Danish tår a drop, a sip

                      • Danish tåre a tear originally a plural
                    • Icelandic tár a tear, a drop, a sip
                • West Germanic

                  • Old English tear a tear

                    • English tear
                  • Old High German zahar

                    • German Zähre a tear archaic
                • Germanic *tahrijaną to weep, to shed tears

                  • East Germanic

                    • Gothic 𐍄𐌰𐌲𐍂𐌾𐌰𐌽 tagrjan to weep, to shed tears
                  • West Germanic

                    • Old English tieran to weep, to water (of eyes)
              • Italic *dakrom

                • Old Latin 𐌃𐌀𐌂𐌓𐌖𐌌𐌀 dacruma a tear

                  • Latin lacruma a tear archaic
                  • Old Latin 𐌃𐌀𐌂𐌓𐌉𐌌𐌀 dacrima a tear variant

                    • Latin lacrima a tear

                      • Central Romance

                        • Italian lacrima a tear
                      • Eastern Romance

                        • Romanian lacrimă a tear
                      • Western Romance

                        • French larme a tear, a drop
                        • Spanish lágrima a tear
                      • Latin lacrimalis of tears, related to tears

                        • English lacrimal
                    • Latin lacrimosus full of tears, lamentable

                      • English lachrymose partly re-modelled as if Greek
                      • Latin lacrimare to weep, to shed tears

                        • Central Romance

                          • Italian lacrimàre to weep, to drip, to mourn
                        • Eastern Romance

                          • Romanian a lăcrima to weep
                        • Spanish lagrimar
                        • Spanish lacrimar
                      • Vulgar Latin *lacrimidiare

                        • Eastern Romance

                          • Aromanian lãcãrmedz to weep
                        • Western Romance

                          • French larmoyer to weep, to whine, to drip
                          • Spanish lagrimear
            • Proto-Indo-European *dáḱruh₂ tears collective

              • Celtic *dakrū tears

                • Brythonic *dėgr

                  • Welsh deigr tears archaic

                    • Welsh deigryn a tear new singular derived from deigr with -yn singulative suffix ^[2]
                    • Welsh dagrau tears new regular plural
              • Hellenic

                • Classical Greek δάκρυα dákrua tears

                  • Classical Greek δάκρυον dákruon a tear back-formed from dákrua ^[2]
  • Proto-Indo-European *h₂eḱu-s

    • Old Armenian հասկ hask ear (of grain)

      • Armenian հասկ hask ear (of grain)
    • Balto-Slavic *ašus

      • East Baltic

        • Latvian ass sharp, pointed
    • Germanic *ahaz ear (of grain)

      • East Germanic

        • Gothic 𐌰𐌷𐍃 ahs ear (of grain)
      • West Germanic

        • Old English

          • English ear only as in grain ^[3]
        • Old High German

          • German Ähre ear (of grain), spike (of a flower)
    • Italic

      • Latin acus needle (sewing or pine), husk

        • Latin acuō sharpen, make pointed, spur, stimulate, exercise, practice

          • Latin acūtus sharp, sharpened

            • Central Romance

              • Italian aguzzo sharp
            • Western Romance

              • Old French

                • French aigu sharp, pointy, acute
                • English ague
              • Spanish agudo sharp, witty, acute
            • English acute
          • Latin acūmen sharpened point

            • English acumen
        • Latin acūcla small needle

          • Central Romance

            • Italian agucchia needle
            • Emilian gùccia sewing needle ^[2]
          • Western Romance

            • French aiguille needle, watch hand, spire

              • French aiglet needle, aiglet

                • English aiglet
                • English aglet
        • Latin aculeus prickle, spine, stinger

          • Vulgar Latin *aculentus

            • Western Romance

              • Old French aiglent sweebriar rose

                • French églantier wild rosebush
                • English eglantine
    • Tocharian

      • Kushean āk ear (of grain)
  • Proto-Indo-European *h₂eḱh₂enh₂

    • Balto-Slavic

      • East Baltic

        • Lithuanian ašnìs
      • Slavic

        • West Slavic
        • Czech osina awn
    • Germanic *aganō chaff

      • North Germanic

        • Old Norse

          • Swedish ag fen sedge, saw sedge sharp marsh grasses
      • West Germanic

        • Old English ægnan

          • English awn
        • Frankish *aghn

          • Dutch agen
    • Hellenic

      • Classical Greek ἄκανος ákanos thistle
    • Italic

      • Latin agna straw, ear (of grain)
  • Proto-Indo-European *h₂oḱyeh₂ optative: ~"it should be sharp"

    • Balto-Slavic

      • East Baltic

        • Lithuanian akėčios harrow
        • Latvian ecēšas harrow
      • West Baltic

        • Old Prussian aketes harrow
    • Germanic *agjō edge, corner

      • North Germanic

        • Old Norse egg edge

          • Danish æg
          • Icelandic egg edge of a knife or sword, edge of a mountain
          • Old Norse eggja to incite, to egg on

            • Icelandic eggja to incite, to egg on
            • English egg
      • West Germanic

        • Old English eċġ edge

          • English edge
        • Frankish

          • Dutch eg harrow

            • Dutch eggen to harrow, to plow

              • German eggen to harrow

                • German Egge harrow
        • Old High German egga

          • German Ecke edge, corner, roughly triangular piece

            • German Dreieck triangle "three-corner"
      • Northern Sami ávju edge
      • Germanic *Agi Sword's Edge (personal name)

        • North Germanic

          • Old Norse Eggi

            • Danish Ove

              • German Uwe
        • Germanic *Agino personal name (diminutive)

          • West Germanic

            • Frankish Aizino

              • Old French Aisincurt Aizino's farmstead (place name)

                • English Agincourt
                • French Azincourt
            • Old High German

              • German Egon
    • Italic

      • Latin occa harrow
  • Proto-Indo-European *h₂ḱeh₂ noun

    • Hellenic

      • Classical Greek ἀκή akḗ point

        • Classical Greek ἀκακία akakía acacia/shittah tree

          • Translingual Acacia
        • Classical Greek ἄκᾰνθος ákanthos acanthus, thorn "point-flower"

          • Translingual Acanthus a taxonomic genus of prickly herbs

            • Translingual Pyracantha taxonomic genus of the firethorn shrubs
    • Finno-Ugric

      • Finnic *kaca

        • Finnish kasa corner
      • Ugric

        • Hungarian hegy mountain, tip (of a knife, finger, pencil, etc.)
      • Samic

        • Northern Sami geahčči point
  • Proto-Indo-European *h₂eḱstis

    • Balto-Slavic

      • East Baltic

        • Lithuanian akstìs thorn
      • Slavic

        • Russian ость ostʹ awn, bristle
    • Celtic *axtīnos gorse

      • Brythonic

        • Welsh eithin gorse
      • Old Irish aiten

        • Irish aiteann gorse
  • Proto-Indo-European *h₂egʷsih₂ axe collective? "sharpnesses"?

    • Germanic *akwisī axe

      • East Germanic

        • Gothic 𐌰𐌵𐌹𐌶𐌹 aqizi axe
      • North Germanic

        • Old Norse øx axe

          • Danish økse axe
          • Icelandic öxi axe
      • West Germanic

        • Old English æx axe

          • English axe
        • Frankish *akus

          • Dutch aks
        • Old High German ackis

          • German Axt axe
    • Hellenic

      • Classical Greek ἀξῑ́νη axī́nē axe, axe-head ^[4]
    • Italic

      • Latin ascia axe, mason's trowel
  • Proto-Indo-European *h₂ḱmeh₂

    • Hellenic

      • Classical Greek ἀκμή akmḗ point, edge, highest of culminating point of something

        • English acme
  • Proto-Indo-European *h₂éḱmō stone, rock agentive, "sharpener"? "cutter"?

    • Balto-Slavic

      • East Baltic

        • Lithuanian akmuo stone semantically expected
        • Lithuanian ašmuõ edge, blade phonologically expected
      • Slavic *kàmy stone

        • East Slavic

          • Russian ка́мень stone, rock, cliff, weight
        • West Slavic

          • Polish kamień stone, stone (unit of mass), plaque
    • Hellenic

      • Classical Greek ἄκμων ákmōn anvil, pestle, head of a battering ram

        • Greek αμόνι amóni anvil
        • Greek άκμονας ákmonas incus anvil shaped bone in the middle ear
    • Indo-Iranian *Háĉmā stone, hammer, thunderbolt

      • Indo-Aryan *Háśmā

        • Sanskrit 𑀅𑀰𑁆𑀫𑀦𑁆 aśman
      • Iranian *Háĉmā

        • Avestan asman sky, heaven
        • Pashto اسمان asmān sky, heaven
        • Western Iranian

          • Kurdish esman sky
          • Medean *asman

            • Old Persian 𐎠𐎿𐎶𐎴 asman sky

              • Persian آسمان âsemân

                • Hindi आसमान āsmān sky
              • Tajik осмон osmon sky
        • Iranian *Haĉangáh stone, weight

          • Avestan asənga- stone
          • Northern Iranian

            • Saka

              • Khotani saṃgga- stone
              • Old Chinese slaːn ɡaː

                • Middle Chinese 珊瑚 sɑn ɦuo coral

                  • Mandarin 珊瑚 shānhú coral
                  • Wu 珊瑚 se hhu coral
                  • Yue 珊瑚 saan1 wu4 coral
                  • Japanese サンゴ sango coral
                  • Korean 산호 sanho coral
                  • Vietnamese san hô coral
                • Taiwanese 珊瑚 soan-ô͘ coral
            • Scythian

              • Ossetian дзӕнгъа ʒænǧa
          • Western Iranian

            • Northwestern Iranian

              • Kurdish seng weight
              • Medean *asangáh

                • Elamite 𒀾𒃻𒀭𒋡 áš-šá-an-ka₄
                • Old Persian 𐎠𐎿𐎴 asan- stone
            • Old Persian 𐎠𐎰𐎥 aθaⁿga- stone

              • Persian سنگ sang stone, tombstone, weight, value, authority

                • Coptic ⲃⲁⲥⲛϭ basnc tin with "ba-" prefix based on other metal names
                • Hindi संग saṅg stone, rock
    • Proto-Indo-European *h₂eḱmoros stony

      • Balto-Slavic

        • Slavic *kamorъ rare, most descendants derive directly from *kamy

          • Slovincian kamor stone, rock
      • Germanic

        • North Germanic
        • Old Norse hamarr stone, cliff, hammer

          • Danish hammer hammer
          • Icelandic hamar hammer, cliff
        • West Germanic

          • Old English hamor hammer

            • English hammer
          • Frankish *hamar

            • Dutch hamer hammer
          • Old High German hamar hammer

            • German Hammer hammer
            • Yiddish האַמער hamer hammer
      • Indo-Iranian

        • Indo-Aryan

          • Sanskrit 𑀅𑀰𑁆𑀫𑀭 aśmará stony
  • Proto-Indo-European ?

    • Italic

      • Latin aciēs sharp edge or point, battle line

        • Late Latin aciārium steel

          • Central Romance

            • Italian acciaio steel
          • Western Romance

            • French acier steel
            • Spanish acero steel, weapon, arms
  • Proto-Indo-European *h₂ḱh₂owsyéti hears (well) lit. "is sharp-earing" ^[3]

    • Germanic *hauzijaną to hear

      • East Germanic

        • Gothic 𐌷𐌰𐌿𐍃𐌾𐌰𐌽 hausjan to hear, listen
      • North Germanic

        • Old Norse heyra to hear, to listen

          • Danish høre to hear, to learn
          • Icelandic heyra to hear, to listen
      • West Germanic

        • Old English hīeran to hear, to listen, to obey

          • English hear ^[3]
        • Frankish *hōren

          • Dutch horen to hear, to be polite, to be supposed to, to belong
        • Old High German hōren to hear

          • German hören to hear, to listen
          • Yiddish הערן hern to hear
      • Germanic *hauzikōną to hark "to hear" + intensifier

        • West Germanic

          • Old English *hercian

            • English hark
          • Frankish *hōrken
          • Old High German hōrechen

            • German horchen to eavesdrop, to hark
    • Hellenic *akouyō

      • Classical Greek ᾰ̓κούω I hear, I listen, I learn, I obey

        • Classical Greek ἀκουστικός akoustikós auditory, related to hearing

          • French acoustique acoustic

            • English acoustic

              • Japanese アコースティック akōsutikku acoustic (unamplified)
  • Proto-Indo-European *h₂ḱew- sharp thing, sting

    • Proto-Indo-European *h₂ḱunyós? An IE form that was suffixed with <*(Ø

      • Italic

        • Latin cuneus wedge, die stamp

          • Central Romance

            • Italian conio die stamp, minting of coins
          • Eastern Romance

            • Romanian cui nail, pin
          • Western Romance

            • Old French coi(g)ne

              • French coin wedge, cornerpiece, corner
              • English coin

                • Japanese コイン koin coin
              • English coign
            • Spanish cuño stamp, die stamp, mark
          • Latin cuneātus wedged, wedge-like

            • Western Romance

              • French cognée axe, hatchet
            • English cuneate
          • Latin cuneifōrmis cuneiform lit. "wedge-shaped"

            • French cunéiforme cuneiform

              • English cuneiform
    • Proto-Indo-European *h₂ḱulis stinging insect

      • Armenian սլաք slakʿ arrow, arrowhead
      • Celtic *kuli

        • Brythonic *kulion

          • Welsh cylion gnats, flies
        • Old Irish cuil fly, flea

          • Irish cuil fly, bug
      • Italic

        • Latin culex mosquito
  • Proto-Indo-European *ḱeh₃- to sharpen ^[5]

    • Proto-Indo-European *ḱoh₃nos

      • Hellenic

        • Classical Greek κῶνος kônos pine cone, tip, cone

          • Greek κώνος kónos cone
          • Armenian կոն kon cone
          • Latin cōnus

            • Central Romance

              • Italian cono cone
            • Western Romance

              • Old French

                • French cône cone
                • English cone
              • Spanish cono cone
      • Celtiberian ? rabbit?, rabbit burrow? ^[6]

        • Vasconic *Hunx́i

          • Basque unxti rabbit
        • Classical Greek κόνικλος kóniklos

          • Latin cuniculus rabbit, rabbit burrow, mine

            • Central Romance

              • Italian coniglio rabbit
            • Western Romance *cuniclus rabbit

              • Old French connin rabbit

                • English cony

                  • Welsh cwning rabbit, cony, hyrax
                • Middle Low German kanīn

                  • Low German Kanien rabbit
                  • Danish kanin rabbit
                  • German Kanin rabbit
              • Spanish conejo
              • Mozarabic konélyo rabbit

                • Mozarabic koncháir greyhound from their use as hare-coursers
    • Proto-Indo-European *ḱh₃tós

      • Italic *katos clever

        • Latin catus clever, cunning, sly ^[7]

          • Latin Catō cognomen

            • English Cato
    • Proto-Indo-European *ḱeh₃s

      • Italic

        • Latin cos whetstone

          • Eastern Romance

            • Romanian cute whetstone
          • Central Romance

            • Italian cote sharpening stone, hone

Visual

Collected English words

oxygen, O, oxymoron, oxytocic, oxytocin, acid, acetate, acropolis, eager, vinegar, acerbic, exacerbate, acrid, train oil, dacryo-, tear, lacrimal, lachrymose, ear, ague, acute, acumen, aiglet, aglet, eglantine, awn, egg, edge, Agincourt, Acacia, Acanthus, Pyracantha, axe, acme, hammer, hear, hark, acoustic, coin, coign, cuneate, cuneiform, cone, cony, Cato

Footnotes

1. ^

   The modern English meaning of eager is a local innovation. English also kept "sharp, sour" as a secondary meaning until 19thC; that's what Shakespeare usually means by eager, e.g., "It is a nipping and an eager (sharp) air" (Hamlet 1.4.2) or "And curd, like eager (sour) droppings into milk" (Hamlet 1.5.69).

2. ^

   I really wanted Emilian gùccia: "sewing needle" to be the source of Guccio Gucci's names, as an occupational surname for a tailor. But it's not, Guccio is a version of Hugo (ultimately from West Germanic *hugi)

3. ^

   The word ear, as in an ear of corn, and ear, as in the part of your body you hear with are unrelated, from PIE roots *h₂eḱ- and *h₂ows-, respectively.

   The word hear is from a compound of both of those roots: *h₂ḱh₂owsyéti from *h₂eḱ- (sharp) + *h₂ows- (ear) + *-yéti (intransitive imperfective verb ending), "to be sharp-earing"

4. ^

   Classical Greek ἀξῑ́νη axī́nē is derivable either from Proto-Indo-European, or from a Semitic borrowing. Compare Akkadian 𒍏𒄩𒍣𒅔 ḫaṣṣinnu: "axe" and Aramaic 𐡇𐡑𐡉𐡍𐡀 ḥaṣīnā: "axe" from Semitic *ḥaṣṣ-. Latin ascia and Germanic *agʷésih₂ could also be from the Semitic borrowing, but the evidence is more towards the PIE root for those.

5. ^

   *ḱeh₃- looks like metathesis from *h₂eḱ- and has the same root meaning, but the o in Greek and o/a alternation in Latin require *ḱeh₃-, not *ḱeh₂-.

6. ^

   There is apparently an Iberian substrate word of some kind here behind Basque unxti and Greek kóniklos, meaning either "rabbit" or "rabbit burrow" (unclear which way the semantic shift is going). There are a lot of possibilities, but I think the best single option is a Celtiberian word from *ḱoh₃nos: "sharp thing".

   Borrowing of this word from an Iberian substrate is logical given the native range of the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus): Iberia, western France, and a bit of northwest Africa. Similarly, the Old French descendant connin was widely borrowed in a later wave.

   Compare that "Spain"/"Hispania" is from traditionally thought to be from Phoenician 𐤀𐤉 𐤔𐤐𐤍 ‘i špn: "island of hyraxes/rabbits". Rabbits were a notable feature of Iberia to ancient visitors! Though that may be a very old folk etymology, ‘i ṣpn: "northern/remote/hidden island", ‘i spn "island of smithing" or ‘i spn "island of sailors" are all plausible alternatives both phonologically and semantically.

7. ^

   Latin catus: "clever, cunning, sly" makes Linaeus' binomial name Felis catus (instead of Felis cattus) for the domestic cat, an (unintentional?) pun.